Equity Theory and Social exchange theory Essay

In this essay I aim to describe two theories (Equity Theory and Social exchange theory) of relationships and to consider how they might influence the therapist engaged in couples counseling, noting their similarities and differences. Equity theory is a theory about fairness. Its application to close relationships has been primarily advanced by Elaine Hatfield (previously known as Elaine Walster) and her colleagues in the book Equity: Theory and Research (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid 1978). The book outlines four interlocking propositions of equity theory and discusses the application of equity theory to different types of relationships, including intimate ones. The propositions are: 1. Individuals will try to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes equal rewards minus costs). 2a. Groups can maximize collective reward by evolving accepted systems for equitably apportioning resources among members. Thus, groups will evolve such systems of equity, and will attempt to induce members to accept and adhere to these systems. 2b.  Groups will generally reward members who treat others equitably, and generally punish (increase the costs for) members who treat others inequitably. 3. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more distressed the individuals feel. 4. Individuals who discover they are in an inequitable relationship attempt to eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the inequity that exists, the more distress they feel, and the harder they try to restore equity. Equity theory rests on the assumption that people are self-interested and will try to maximize their personal gains. It has sometimes been questioned by researchers who believe that the nature of close relationships differs from other types of relationships. They argue that close relationships should not be based on individual calculations of costs and rewards and a self-interested focus on maintaining relationships solely for the personal profit they may provide. Instead, they argue that relationships should be based on a mutual concern for each others’ welfare or needs (Clark and Chrisman 1994; Clark and Mills 1979). Three primary ways of dealing with challenges to this assumption exist. One is to consider that individuals may vary in â€Å"exchange orientation† or the importance they give to monitoring equity in their relationships (Murstein, Cerreto, and Mac-Donald 1977). For example, some individuals may be high in exchange orientation, constantly keeping track of how much they and their partners put into or get out of a relationship. Other individuals may be low in exchange orientation, not paying attention to inputs, outputs, costs, and rewards of their relationships at all. Measuring exchange orientation may be a way of measuring self-interest in relationships. Research by Susan Sprecher (1998) has supported this notion. Her findings suggest that different motivations for â€Å"keeping score† of costs and benefits in a relationship have different effects on relationship quality. People who keep track of inputs and outputs to make sure they are not under benefited by the relationship seem to be less satisfied by their relationship whereas people who keep track of inputs and outputs to make sure they are not over-benefited by the relationship seem to be more satisfied by it. Another way to account for differences in philosophies regarding self-interest in relationships is to include relational-level outcomes such as mutuality, sharing, and respect as types of benefits that individuals can receive from relationships. Relational partners may see themselves as a unit, with both of them maximally benefiting from the relationship. In this type of relationship, where identities of the individual partners have merged, what benefits one partner will also benefit the other. Relational-level outcomes have not regularly been considered in equity research, although similar concepts arise during discussions of entitlement processes (Desmarais and Lerner 1994) and fairness rules (Clark and Chrisman 1994) in close relationships. Equity in a relationship may be seen as its own reward. This idea is suggested by proposition 2 that attempts to account for the development of rules, or norms, that limit self-interest behavior. If individuals were to continually strive for the most resources, anarchy and violence would dominate society as each member tried to gain more. However, proposition 2 asserts that societies, groups, and couples will develop rules that foster fairness to each member in order to prevent such a condition. People who follow the rules of fairness will be rewarded, and people who do not will be punished. Thus, behaving equitably becomes a means to maximize one’s outcomes, and fairness, more so than self-interest, becomes the norm. Proposition 3 that focus on the outcomes of inequitable relationships by asserting that individuals in inequitable relationships will become distressed. Researchers exploring the area of equitable outcomes in marital relationships often measure outcomes through reports or observations of behaviors rather than perceptions. This is because individuals’ perceptions of their relationships can become skewed through gender-based valuing of relational inputs, because an incongruence often exists between perception of one’s behavior and the actual behavior itself, and because people in low-power positions often feel entitled to less that leads them to perceive an unfair situation as fair. According to this, people do still report perceived inequity in their relationships, and it has been associated with negative outcomes, including less sexual intimacy, less sexual satisfaction, less commitment to the relationship, decreased happiness and satisfaction with the relationship, and relationship breakup (Sprecher 1995). And proposition 4 states people involved in inequitable relationships will try to restore equity. Hatfield (Walster) and her colleagues (1978) provide two ways that a person can restore equity to a relationship: by restoring actual equity or by restoring psychological equity (the perception that equity actually exists when it does not). Researchers who use behavior to measure relational equity instead of perceptions may do so because they believe partners in an inequitable relationship do not see the inequity. This assumption is congruent with the concept of restoring psychological equity. Understanding the concept of fairness is essential to understanding equity theory. Elaine Hatfield (Walster) and her colleagues (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid 1978) argue that fairness rules are culturally bound, indicating that generally one of three rules of fairness can apply: proportionality, equality, or need. Rules based upon proportionality mean that individuals receive â€Å"equal relative gains from the relationship†. In other words, each person should get out of the relationship gains that are in proportion to what they have put into the relationship. The equality rule, on the other hand, means that regardless of how much each person has put into the relationship, they should each reap equal rewards. Finally, the need-based rule indicates that need should be the determining factor in what partners get from a relationship, regardless of their individual contributions to it. Social exchange theory has always been an important component of cognitive-behavioral treatment for families. Most empirically based couple therapies have their foundations in behavioral couple therapy, which focuses on directly changing behavior by maximizing positive changes and minimizing positive exchanges. This concept particularly important in as much as most unhappy couples report higher daily frequencies of negative events than of positive events (Johnson & O’Leary, 1996). Social exchange theory centers on the costs and benefits associated with relationships. It emphasizes that there is technically a downside to particular social conditions, such as being married or single, and there are moments when a downside may predominate in the mind of an individual, causing him or her to view the social condition with regret. Social exchange theory was first conceived by Homens (1961) and later elaborated on by Thibaut and Kelly (1959). Thibaut and Kelly applied the concept of social exchange to the dynamics of intimate relationships, in which they identified patterns of interdepency. Social exchange theory is based on economic theories and views couple interaction through the lens of the exchange of costs and rewards. Simply stated, costs are reasons why a relationship would be considered undesirable, whereas rewards pertain to reasons that partners would remain in a relationship. If we think about our own spousal relationships, we may discover many costs and rewards. Some costs may be our spouse’s bad habits, such as excessive spending of money or his or her temperament. However, these costs may be strongly outweighed by the rewards, which may consist of the spouse’s kindness, sensitivity, and his or her constant loyalty and support. It is balance of costs and rewards that often helps couples to determine whether or not they are satisfied in a relationship. A main concept of social exchange theory is the tendency of individuals to compare the rewards they are receiving with the perceived alternatives. Equity theory is related to social exchange theory, given their unifying basic premise that outcomes should be evaluated in a relative sense within some frame of reference. Equity theory focuses upon outcome evaluations that result from relationships characterized by economic productivity objectives. Equity theory postulates that parties in exchange relationships compare their ratios of exchange inputs to outcomes. Inequity is said to exist when the perceived inputs and /or outcomes in an exchange relationship are psychologically inconsistent with the perceived inputs and/or outcomes of the referent. Since parties sometimes need to evaluate each other before engaging in an exchange, role expectations play a crucial role in determining the equity level of a potential exchange relationship. Each party to the exchange has certain expectations about their own role as well as that of the other party. According to role theory, each exchange partner has learned a set of behaviors that is appropriate in an exchange context – this will increase the probability of goal attainment by each partner. Role stress can affect long-term relationships if role expectations are unclear or if actual behaviors deviate from expectations. Believed inequities lead exchange parties to feel under-rewarded or over-rewarded, angry, or resentful, and will affect behaviors in subsequent periods by encouraging these parties to change their inputs into the relationship, and thus result in suspicion and mistrust of the exchange partner. The closer the exchange relationship, the more likely it is that relationship participants will perceive inequity. If equity prevails, the ratio of inequity, the ratio of one person’s outcomes to inputs is assumed to be constant across exchange partners, which results in the satisfaction of exchange partners with their outcomes. Equitable outcomes stimulate confidence that parties do not take the advantage of each other and those them are concerned about each others’ welfare. Parties in a relationship can compare their own ratio to that of their exchange partner, to those of others who interact with their exchange partner at the same level, and to that of their best alternative exchange partner. The social exchange theory is useful for couples counseling; it focuses on what each partner gives and receives from the other. It allows for therapist and clients to analyze their positive and negative behaviors which need to be changed. Members of relationship need not achieve total equality in the ratios of positives and negatives they exchange in order to be happy. The key is to find a balance of exchange over time that each person finds acceptable. Equity theory is based on couples counseling as everything in a relationship has to be equal otherwise it is gone be lots of problems in a relationship. Therapist can use it in a couples counseling. The members of the relationship who discover the inequity in their relationship feels distressed and it makes harder to restore the equity in their relationship. Therapist can get members of relationship to focus on the value of their relationship than the more material things they are getting from it. Also different motivations have different effects on relationship quality. So it would be another thing for therapist to look at during the couples counseling session.

How does Shakespeare present the conflict of good and evil in his play, Macbeth? Essay

How do these extremes reflect the time in which the play was written? (20 marks) The play Macbeth presents the antithesis of good and evil as a concept that is absolute. The play follows the common religious beliefs of the time in presenting three main causes of evil: the total depravity of man, temptation from others and satanic influence. Good is also presented but is not the focus of the play. This is a play about evil, treason and uncertainty – a reflection of the turbulent times of Jacobean England under James I where the conflict between good and evil actions was very real. In examining the three ways in which Shakespeare presents the conflict, a good place to start would be total depravity. Primarily we see this battle of conscience versus will of the flesh personified in the character of Macbeth. In Act 1 Scene 4, after Duncan names Malcom as his successor, Macbeth laments that Malcom is an obstacle: â€Å"On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, / For in my way it lies.† We can see at this stage Macbeth is still undecided at what his course of action will be. His conscience tells him to give up, to â€Å"fall down†, but if he is to fulfil his desire of becoming king he must â€Å"o’erleap† such hindrances. He goes on to say, â€Å"Stars hide your fires, / Let not light see my black and deep desires.† Evil committed in darkness is a recurring theme across the play. Macbeth wishes to hide his evil deeds in the night, out of the sight of men and arguably out of the sight of God, as light typifies all that is good and at the time God was considered to be the ultimate good. This meaning would not have been lost on a Jacobean audience. The next couplet further emphasises the discord man can experience within himself: â€Å"The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be, / Which the eye fears when it is done to see.† This conveys that man can be blind to his own actions, and not even be aware he is committing evil until his eye fearfully surveys the damage caused. The dual use of rhyming couplets at the end of the speech emphasises how twisted and evil Macbeth is becoming. This idea of man choosing darkness was a common idea of the times. The Puritans believed strongly in the doctrine of Total Depravity, the idea that when given the choice between good and evil man will eventually chose sin by default and is not capable of doing good without divine intervention. In John Calvin’s ‘Institutes of the Christian Religion’ he explains evil as â€Å"a hereditary, depravity and corruption of our nature†. However, Banquo is an example of how the Jacobeans believed a religious man can overcome temptation. He is subjected to the same temptation as Macbeth but in Act 2 Scene 1 he is seen praying, â€Å"Merciful powers / Restrain me in the cursed thoughts that nature / Gives way to repose.† He asks for his depraved nature to be restrained so he will be able to choose to do good. It is possible that he himself is considering killing the king. The â€Å"cursed thoughts† that he speaks of have begun to transpose as nightmares, which represent how darkness is seeping into even the Scottish people’s repose. Sleep would normally be associated with peace and rest, but slowly it becomes a metaphor for death and decay. Following on from that the second way Shakespeare presents good and evil is temptation from others. We see this presented clearly with the scenario in Act 1 Scene 5 between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. When Lady Macbeth finishes reading Macbeth’s letter she states that she fears, â€Å"thy nature, / It is too full of the milk of human kindness / To catch the nearest way.† She fears that Macbeth’s nature is too kind to take the most direct method to kingship: murdering Duncan. Here we can see how well she knows Macbeth and what drives him. She describes human kindness as â€Å"milk†. We know Lady Macbeth is currently nursing children, and milk in that sense represents all that is good, natural and necessary for survival. She implies that kindness flows as easily from Macbeth as milk from a nursing mother. She continues by saying, â€Å"Thou wouldst be great, / Art not without ambition, but without / The illness should attend it†, implying that Macbeth is an ambitious man who desires to be great, but he refuses to let evil influence his aspirations. He â€Å"wouldst not play false.† She recognises that without any external influence he will never commit the evil deeds that he is tempted towards. This is conveyed to us when she promises to, â€Å"chastise with the valour of my tongue.† The use of â€Å"chastise† creates a violent image, as if she intends to give him the verbal equivalent to a beating. She wishes to pass her boldness on to Macbeth, in variance to the typical submissive attitude that was expected of wives in that era. She further emphasises her dark and rebellious nature when the messenger informs her that Duncan is to stay in her castle that night. With an element of twisted glee she interprets the hoarse cry of the raven to foreshadow, â€Å"the fatal entrance of Duncan / Under my battlements.† She refers to the castle as if it belonged solely to her, and as if the murder of Duncan will be of her doing with minimal help from Macbeth. She is presented to the audience as just as ambitious as Macbeth, if not more. The raven itself is a bird typically associated with darkness, death and evil. It is even more ominous that it has croaked itself hoarse, conveying that evil is already corrupting Scotland before that cataclysmic deed is even committed. Lady Macbeth is adamant that she wants any form of femininity, no matter how mild, to be removed from her so that she can carry out her task efficiently. She expresses a desire to be â€Å"unsexed†. The milk analogy is continued when she asks evil spirits to, â€Å"Take my milk for gall.† She wishes that what she referred to in her previous speech as â€Å"the milk of human kindness† to be removed entirely from her and replaced with malice and evil. When she begins to tempt Macbeth she tells him that, â€Å"Your hand, your tongue; look like th’ innocent flower, / But be the serpent under’t.† She encourages Macbeth to shed his innocent, good exterior and unleash the serpent that lies below. Through the direct contrast between a flower and serpent Shakespeare conveys how incompatible good and evil are – Macbeth must choose one, for he cannot balance both. Shakespeare, through Lady Macbeth, presents good as something fickle and easily corruptible, the weaker side in the conflict between good and evil. Furthermore, referencing to a serpent is a Biblical metaphor of when Eve tempted Adam into sin. That’s not the only time in the Bible that evil women help men fall into sin: other cases include Samson and Delilah and Herod and Herodias. The Bible was taken extremely seriously in Jacobean times, and due to these beliefs that women are easier to tempt than men, Jacobean wives were expected to be submissive and obedient to their husbands, who would keep them on the right track. In his controversial book ‘The Monstrous Regiment of Women’ John Knox stated that â€Å"To promote a woman to bear rule, superiority, dominion, or empire above any realm, nation, or city, is repugnant to nature.† A woman with influence over her husband would have been taboo, but a Queen like Lady Macbeth with power over the country she ruled would have been even more unacceptable in the social hierarchy of society (Knox wrote his book in response to the reign of Elizabeth I, who died three years before Macbeth was produced). King James, who the play was written for, would have been a staunch complementarian. Ultimately Lady Macbeth’s actions lead to her demise, leaving the audience to wonder how differently her life would have been if she had not tempted Macbeth. It could be argued that the tragedy in Macbeth hinged on Lady Macbeth usurping her prescribed role. Many scholars would claim that Shakespeare was a feminist, but even if that was true he would not have been able to express such views under James’s reign. Finally, the most effective way Shakespeare presents the conflict of good and evil in Macbeth is through the involvement of the supernatural and divine. In Macbeth good and evil is not confined to an internal conflict within man but is also represented through a spiritual war with frequent references to God and Satan, the ultimate adversaries. This is best conveyed when Duncan is killed, and then at the climax of the play when good ultimately prevails. In Act 2 Scene 3, when Macduff brings the news of Duncan’s murder, he cries, â€Å"O horror, horror, horror!† The tone of this line is pure shock, and the repetition of â€Å"horror† conveys that the deed is so horrible and inconceivable that Macduff is lost for words. He continues to deplore, â€Å"Confusion now hath made his masterpiece†. In the Bible it reads that, â€Å"God is not the author of confusion†, so that means Duncan’s death could only be a masterpiece of demonic proportions. The audience is given a sense of how heinous a deed this is when he continues; â€Å"Most sacrilegious murder hath broken ope / The Lord’s anointed temple.† In the conflict between good and evil in Macbeth Macduff is presented as being a religious man, like Banquo. He uses another direct Biblical reference, this time citing verses about kingship. Old Testament kings were directly anointed by God, and it is said the body of a holy man is the temple of God’s spirit. Violent imagery is used when he talks about the temple being, â€Å"broken ope†, implying that the spirit was forcibly and criminally removed from its righteous place. Following on from this, the Divine Right of Kings was a major factor in James I’s court. This was a Puritan doctrine that said each king was predestined to take the throne by God and treason against the king was also a blasphemous crime against God. In the epistle dedicatory of the King James/Authorised Bible it reads, â€Å"Great and manifold were the blessings, most dread Sovereign, which Almighty God, the Father of all mercies, bestowed upon us the people of England, when first he sent Your Majesty’s Royal Person to rule and reign over us.† The doctrine’s purpose was routed in kings like James wishing to reinforce their position rather than Biblical fidelity. James was short and did not have the physical appearance of a typical king, and he had recently survived an assassination attempt at the hands of a Catholic group. He had many reason to fear for his right to the throne. The many demonic references were also deep routed in Jacobean culture, where fears of demons, witches and witches were very real. Hundreds of women were burnt as witches and James himself penned an essay named ‘Daemonologie’ after he believed demonic forces tried to kill his wife. To conclude, in Macbeth good ultimately wins the conflict: Macbeth is killed and the throne of Scotland is joined with England. God’s hand is placed back on Scotland in a slightly deus ex machina fashion. Shakespeare presents the audience with many different interpretations of the conflict between good and evil in keeping with the Jacobean culture, the most effective of which I believe is his use of the supernatural.

RheaTeam B wk3 paper with IRAC - 975 Words

Learning Team B Reflection: Week 3 IRAC Brief Learning Team B: Rhea Carson, Elspeth Flynn, Matthew Cable, Dusty Henson, Joseph Spurling LAW531 October 21, 2014 Janice Scott IRAC: Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley Sons Case Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley Sons Issue Whether first-sale doctrine codified in 17 U.S.C.  § 109(a) is applicable to John Wiley Sons copyrighted works manufactured and bought abroad, resold in the United States by Kirtsaeng without the owner’s permission. Is this a violation of the Copyright Owner’s rights or was he protected under the First Sale Doctrine? Rule The first sale doctrine states that an individual who purchases a legally produced copyrighted work may sell or dispose of the work as that person sees fit†¦show more content†¦Wiley believes their copyright grant gives them the right to control the prices abroad and in the United States. As the case went through the 2nd and 9th circuit courts, the decision was made in favor of Wiley. The case was then appealed to the Supreme Court which voted in favor of Kirtsaeng. Conclusion If the final decision by the Supreme Court was accepted in favor of Wiley, the fallout would possibly result in chaos and could result in United States companies moving their manufacturing outside of the country. The final sale doctrine would no longer be accepted in the majority of situations. As a result, Wiley Sons, Inc. increased the costs of their text books that are sold overseas. The case lasted almost 6 years and ended up in the defendants favor. After this case, there may be other businesses that look at the costs of their items overseas as well (Lee, 2014). The case would also result in companies like Amazon, eBay, and Walmart stores losing business from buying goods overseas and reselling in the United States. Companies will now have to reevaluate their marketing and pricing in foreign countries. Team B Week 3 Reflection Two of the objectives we discussed as a team are: differentiating between personal, real, and intellectual property issues, and determining appropriate methods to address potential property issues. Different types of property have different laws that protect them as well as different methods of addressing issues. After

The wild Palms If Forget Thee, Jerusalem by...

If a story is in you, it has to come out (William Faulkner, The wild Palms [if I forget thee, Jerusalem]). An American writer in American and southern literature, Faulkner was a spellbinding author known for experimental style with perfect attention to usage and rhythm. Faulkners works were highly influenced by own personal interest, history and personal outlook on faith. Being intensely rooted in the old America, the America in which was molded by the First World War. The fictional works that were made released a perspective of life, portraying into the drawn outlook of making life seem to be disturbing and meaningless. Faulkners works gave a honest reality of history a subject which really strapped a lust of interest, due to that†¦show more content†¦The interest that dealt with violence is portrayed through the novels Sanctuary and Requiem For A Nun. Both related by its violence, in Requiem For A Nun a complete act of violence takes form other than in the Sanctuary it is meant for a provoking shocking response, both violence is stressed not through sensation but because it has opposite modes of response. In both novels acts of murder is portrayed through events of adventure, crime and punishment, linked with social and moral legal aspects. Faulkner expressed the love of mysterious murder through a short story, A Rose For Emily. The grim protagonist struggles to keep tradition in the change from the old to the new South. The dusty li fe of Emilys holds murder, odd acts, and suicide, which realizes a mysterious curiosity to the reader. As a traditional moralist Faulkners one principle is engraved together in all thirteen book, the significance that belongs to great myths. That principle is the southern social ethical tradition which Faulkner possesses effortlessly. Being a traditional man with modern south soaked in, it is not strange that the worlds created through the novels are specifically a series or related myths build around the conflict of either traditionalism and the modern world. To illustrate further The unvanquished is a novel which two sides of conflicts are the acts of tradition, the

Childhood Illness A Look At Postpartum Depression

Maternal Mental illness: A look at Postpartum Depression, its new inclusion into DSM-5, and treatment issues Antonella Uribe John Jay College of Criminal Justice INTRODUCTION Sandra was a 26 year old mother of four children who had been married for eight years. She had given birth to her fourth child two months ago, with the help of a midwife. Due to her husband’s recent pay cut, and already difficult financial situation, Sandra did not receive any antenatal or postnatal care. About a month after birth she felt normal. However, she soon began to exhibit unusual behavior including losing interest in her daily activities, spending most of the day alone without speaking to anyone, and ceasing to care for her†¦show more content†¦This paper will focus on the challenges faced when diagnosing and treating PPD, as well as its new inclusion in the DSM-5. What is Postpartum depression? There have been many changes made to the criterion for PPD since its inclusion in the DSM-IV and DSM-5. Currently, in the DSM-5, PPD is classified under depressive disorders. It is listed as a specifier under â€Å"peripartum disorders,† stating that the onset of mood symptoms occur during pregnancy or in the 4 weeks following delivery. In the DSM-IV, it is classified under mood disorders. The DSM-IV included a â€Å"criteria for Postpartum onset specifier,† which define postpartum onset as an episode occurring within four weeks postpartum. While these two classifications are similar, the DSM-5 revision made a point to elaborate on the specifier by adding a note that stated mood episodes can have their onset either during pregnancy or postpartum. It then goes on to include the fact that 50% of â€Å"postpartum† major depressive episodes actually begin prior to delivery, which is why they are referred to as peripartum episodes (DSM-5, p.186). Peripartum episodes c an occur with or without psychotic features, which can explain a case of simple â€Å"baby blues† vs. infanticide, or thoughts or delusions of killing the

Untitled Essay Research Paper The Economy of free essay sample

Untitled Essay, Research Paper The Economy of Japan had experience a enormous growing since the terminal of the Korean war. The growing of GNP in 1967 and 1968 was above 10 % ( dual digit growing period ) which exceed states such as Britain, France and Germany. The economic system experienced a encouragement is due to many grounds, such as: expansion of industrial installations, monolithic version of western engineering and instruction, lower the military disbursal to 1 % of GNP, relation with power state, human resources and their spirit to accomplish # 8220 ; zero defect plan # 8221 ; . But after the foremost and 2nd oil crisis that occur from 1973 onward. The economic system move downwards partly due to the hapless direction of economic policy. Although the authorities had effort to set the economic policy but the recovery was slow. As the glide of hankering continues the demand for export has addition enormously. With the concern of the United State of this job, president Reagan and the G5 have signed an understanding with Japan called # 8220 ; Plaza Agreement # 8221 ; , the understanding stated that the exchange rate of Japan and Deutschmark can appreciate against the U. S. . Since so the hankering value began to appreciate, Japan was traveling through a period of trade balance accommodation. While Japan is prepare to travel through a period of trade balance accommodation, it will besides endure a period of recession, so the authorities strongly promote concern activities to beef up the economic system in order to forestall backwash consequence. It was this event which boost up the GNP and raise the exchange rate. With this exchange rate advantage it stimulate concern activity on lodging and stock investing which created a bubble economic system. During this period about the full state was involve in land guess or other speculate activities. In this essay it will turn out that land bad activities had create many negative impacts to the Nipponese society and economic system. First, it will depict the cause of land guess. Secondly it will discourse on the society and political effects in Japan and in conclusion it will concentrate on the economic system effects, more over it will include the wake when the bubble collapse.The root of this bubble economic system is due the moving ridge of land guess. The broad spread of land guess activities were chiefly because it is profitable. The bad minutess in assets grew and grew and many believe that this will last for really long period of clip. One of the ground that leads to massive investmentin the hazardous activities is because of the success of the Japanese in the international market during 70*s # 8211 ; 80*s. Many Nipponese endeavors and concern adult male had become really affluent. These people have a big amount of equity to put. Some of these people have focus on hazardous plus such as stocks and land, hence many of the regular ventures were left buttocks. One of the major cause of the monolithic dealing in the land market was due the incremental of loans by Bankss. Fiscal establishment was really positive in imparting money to the endeavor. This enhance the handiness to the land speculate market. Each size of this loan is really big. This is because the size of mortgage in Japan fiscal establishments are based on the collateral, ( house ) while in North America the size of the mortgage is based on the borrower*s income watercourse. Therefore the size of loan can be obtain by borrower is larger in Japan than North America. Besides 62 % of Nipponese families own the place that they live and in mean the value is near 4 million hankerings. Therefore there are tonss of possible investors. And during the period of bad activities, borrowers increase the value of their loans as the value of their collateral additions. Since plus is extremely liquidate, the figure of possible speculators are high and borrowers in Japan were able to acquire a larger size loan on existent estate hence bad activities sink into the degree of common place proprietor and big endeavor. Beside the method of ciphering mortgage size, another ground why the size of loan was so big is likely that both the bank and the investor were behind the land guess activity ( banking dirt ) . Investors were paying some cardinal money ( kind of a payoff ) to fiscal establishment in order to obtain a larger size loan. Therefore many fiscal establishments were over loan during this period. Another signifier of raising hard currency flow for the speculate market was by braking down a loan that obtain from a big fiscal establishment to a specific endeavor, so impart a little piece of this loan to those who was non eligible to obtain a loan from the bank. These companies that act as the funnel will gain a certain sum of involvement from these smaller companies ( branch consequence ) . Therefore all categories of companies and society can easy entree in the speculate market. Other big corporate, building company, form offense group and even temple ( spiritual ) were besides involve in land guess. Another encouragement to the bad market was because the authorities ( broad democratic party ) had originally lower the capital addition revenue enhancement in the early 80*s. Therefore the net income for proprietor to resale their land was big. Defects in authorities policy besides indirectly allow investor to acquire off of belongings revenue enhancement disbursal. For illustration some land proprietor could merely works small harvests over a big piece of expensive vacant land in urban metropolis and declare them as agribusiness land. As a consequence they will be revenue enhancement really small. Therefore the incremental of land bad activities were due to over size loan, high handiness to the land bad market and indirectly by the authorities flaws.During the extremum of the land guess there is a rather interesting survey of land monetary value in Japan. ( 1 ) # 8220 ; If you sell the full belongings of Tokyo you can really purchase the full United province and by merely selling the surrounding land of the Imperial castle you can purchase Canada. # 8221 ; Although it might of been a small over exaggerate, but the point is that the land value in Japan comparison to North America is much higher. Since there is no 1 side of a coin, Land guess had create many societal jobs in Japan. First, land guess had rise the rent and lodging cost enormously. As a consequence many immature twosomes and low income households were unable to organize their ain house clasp. In norm the cost of a house in Tokyo had raise to about 500 million hankerings. The younger group with low income can non afford it and the mid age workers may besides non able to afford it. Primary is because they would hold to give up at least three-fifth of their income in loan refund. Besides if they have a comparatively low sum of down payment, there working age may non be long to refund a mortgage. The longer the amortisation period, the larger the sum of involvement they bare. The white neckband had become the bondage or forfeit of the neer stoping mortgage payment and high cost of lodging. In 1990 the births live in Japan was 1.2 million, in fact the figure is the lowest since 1893. Many analysts believe that one of the ground that lead to this slow growing of population could be create by high house monetary values. So Nipponese people have stopped holding kids and big household is rare. Therefore this is one of the causes of Japan is running our of Nipponese. This is besides a really large societal issue of the modern Nipponese society but the case in point of the slow growing of population has now move from high lodging cost to other societal jobs. During this period, there were tonss of instances sing on the robbery and suicidal in the constabulary force. ( 1 ) # 8211 ; Wood, # 8220 ; The Bubble Economy # 8221 ; , Sidgwick A ; Jackson, London 1992 pg. 50 This was chiefly because of the to a great extent debts that these constabularies bare and they have no other pick than to try to travel above the jurisprudence. Due to the funding jobs in the existent estate market, it leads to the initiation of what is plan call # 8220 ; 2 coevalss mortgage program # 8221 ; . The initiation of this program was propose to accommodate the bulk of the white neckband in the Nipponese society. This program was develop since 1983 but it became more utile from 1985 onwards and the making of this plan must be father-son that program or already populating together. ( boy must be older than 20 and must refund the loan by the age at 70 ) The size of the mortgage is determined by the borrower, involvement is flexible and the appliers must buy an life insurance in order to protect the hazard of un collectable due to decease. ( Pay by the bank ) Husband and married woman can besides articulation this plan. Banker said that the applier may able to refund this loan in 40 yr. and this type of plan besides promote a bonding relationship between male parent and boy. On one side this plan may let a regular income worker to be a place proprietor but on the other side this individual will bare a debt for the full life and base on ballss on to the following coevals. Furthermore it may restrict on the ingestion of the borrower on other composite good. The roars in land monetary values besides discourage people # 8217 ; s incentive to work. ( 2 ) # 8220 ; Because if any lucky persons inherited or have a piece of land in metro Tokyo, they will all of a sudden derive a net worth of 250 to 300 million yen. # 8221 ; This sum of money is tantamount to honest man*s life clip income plus retire pension. Since may people acquire rich during this period, the figure of in-between category income in Japan had enormously increase. Under these fortunes, many believe they have already achieved the good life therefore people lose the inducement to work hard and acquire in front. Therefore it will falsify the societal construction in Japan and make many jobs to the authorities ( revenue enhancements ) . Since the forfeit and cost of place ownership is so high therefore many Nipponese had prefer to lease. Since the demand of rental market addition, it besides attracted many investor and speculator. Therefore renters besides suffer from the incremental rise of land monetary value. In Japan, immature twosomes, low income group and the aged participated as the major group of renter in Japan. During this period, proprietors were looking to sell their belongings for high return and in order to coerce the renter to travel ( after renter moves landlord can take higher quality renter or resale the belongings for a larger net income ) rent rises highly high. Many aged were unable to afford such high rent so ( 2 ) # 8211 ; Wood, # 8220 ; The Bubble Economy # 8221 ; , Sidgwick A ; Jackson, London 1992 pg. 61many were force to travel. As a consequence many had become homeless. In some instances renter refuses to travel so some proprietor will engage form pack group to coerce them out. Some of these unfortunate renters will give up the hope in place ownership in the nucleus and travel further and further off from the centre. Therefore many of them will pass over 2 to 3 hours to transpose from their topographic point to work. So either manner, place proprietor ship and renters suffer from the rise of lodging monetary value. The natural populations are non the lone civilian of this incident. Many foreign pupils besides suffer from the lodging job. ( 3 ) # 8220 ; In 1986, there was a statistic taken over a entire figure of 8116 foreign pupils. Apparently merely 17 % lives in an equal occupant facility. # 8221 ; The primary ground was due to the cost of rent, high exchange rate and in conclusion it was because the local people do non wish to lease their belongings to foreign pupil. Student associate had propose to construct new occupant lodging but due to the heat of land guess ( make an addition in the demand of land ) and high building cost, the new residential lodging will be really dearly-won. Therefore this new building will likely raise the rent 2 to 3 times. While the lodging job continues for foreign pupils from 80 onward the Nipponese authorities had still declare that they ( 4 ) # 8220 ; anticipate a sum of 100,000 new foreign pupil will be coming in during the 21st century. # 8221 ; This reflects that the authorities has pay really small consciousness non merely on the natural population but besides foreign pupil. Beside foreign pupils and the natural population, another group that affects by the high land monetary values was foreign embassador. As the monetary value continued to lift ( specially in Tokyo ) , the embassadors of the lower wealth states ( such as Africa or Uganda ) were force to travel their location off from Tokyo due to high rent. Although this job was reflect to the Nipponese authorities but it was remain un solve. Other side effects of the land guess was the new residential building during that epoch. In ( 1000 leaf metropolis ) many of the new building country no longer hold a big field or play land that similar to a traditional residential country. ( 3 ) # 8211 ; Cao Man Kit, # 8220 ; The Life of Foreign Student in Japan # 8221 ; , Ming Chang, H.K. 1991, pg.160 ( 4 ) # 8211 ; Cao Man Kit, # 8220 ; The Life of Foreign Student in Japan # 8221 ; , Ming Chang, H.K. 1991, pg. 167In one of the Nipponese newspaper there is an advertise article that describes their prognosis on the living status of the Japanese in the twenty-first century. ( 5 ) # 8220 ; The hubby should non return place until weekend, during weekdays merely live in worker*s occupant near their workplace. This resident lodging should be similar to hotel where it has an into desk that can rinse your fabrics, postal service and take your message. Their place should be in some rural or less urban country that 100 kilometers off from work. # 8221 ; This reflected that the rise of land value did non merely merely consequence the affordability of the lodging but besides falsify the life style of the Japan workers as it had reflect in the earlier incident of the 2 coevalss mortgage. ( 6 ) # 8220 ; During the bubble economic system period the districting ordinance in Tokyo has revision to let builder to construct more capital on the piece of land. So this indirectly rises the possible of constructing infinite in Tokyo. It will once more raised the existent estate value, belongings revenue enhancements and traffic congestion degree of the area. # 8221 ; Harmonizing to the ( 7 ) # 8220 ; National Land Agency statistic, about half of houses surveyed in the mid to late 1980s responded that they had no development programs for the land that they acquired. # 8221 ; They seldom built places or flats, but alternatively constructed office edifices that would convey in steady grosss. From the developer*s point of position, houses and flat are the least profitable undertakings. So land would about / gt ; neer allotted for lodging # 8221 ; . With land guess and the deficit supply of new building on lodging the Nipponese occupants are really hard to happen an low-cost topographic point to populate beside the houses that are really far from work topographic point. In the current Japan election the per centum of participant electors in Japan has drop below 60 % of the entire population and the broad democractic did non have 50 % of the place through election. This per centum was the lowest since WWII and chiefly was because the populations in Japan no longer believe the broad democratic party can convey them back from recession. Besides they did non hold a good control system during the bubble economic system, failure of the recovery plan after the bubble splash. ( plan such as enlargement in public investing, take downing the involvement rate and series of economic counter step but the hankering is still reasonably high which discourage export ) In more specific, during the bubble economic system the authorities did non truly suggest ( 5 ) Cao Man Kit, # 8220 ; The Strategic of Japan Enterprise # 8221 ; , Ming Chang, H.K. 1992, pg. 68 ( 6 ) Mc Millian Charles, # 8220 ; The Japan Industrial System # 8221 ; , Berlin, New York, 1996, pg. 56 ( 7 ) Wood, # 8220 ; The Bubble Economy # 8221 ; , Sidgwick A ; Jackson, London 1992 pg. 89an effectual revenue enhancement jurisprudence until 1990. ( National Land Value Tax- prohibitory revenue enhancement on net incomes from the sale or transportation of land national land jurisprudence 1974 ) This revitalizes the local belongings revenue enhancement and appraisal ratio for the fixed plus revenue enhancement. Another official policy was issue during 1990 was through the fiscal market in which the authorities regulates on the loan activity. This finally decelerate down the loan activities mostly in 1991. But still the authorities truly lagged their response for those who already suffer for 5 old ages of high lodging cost. More over during the period of bubble economic system, many political relations were either involve in land guess or was bribe by organize pack group and big endeavor in order for these people to be more handily to hold more benefits in the land market. One incident is involve by a concern adult male Kyowa and a cabinet curate Fumio Abe, where Abe sold the inside informations of where a new route building in Hokkaido in return for 480 million hankerings. Political dirt was expose to the public non long after the bubble economic system was splash. Last, most of the plus of the politicians are in the existent estate market therefore neither the bank or the functionaries admit the autumn in land monetary values. So when this incident was expose to the populace, the monetary values of land autumn aggressively around 50 % . And chiefly because of the period of screen up. So many large and little investors all of a sudden woke up from their happy dreams and face the atrocious world. With the above grounds the authorities has lost the trust of many Nipponese. Therefore the land speculate activities had besides consequence the image of the strong broad democratic. During the bubble splash period, many pre-graduates and graduated university pupils were unable to happen occupations in the labour market due to the diet all companies hence many pupils were thwart about their hereafter. Therefore the supply of the labour market is distorted by the bubble explosion. Therefore you can see that the land guess activities had create many societal jobs to the Japan society during the bubble period and after the bubble burst.During the bubble period the economic system was strongly boost by the sudden rise of land value and stock market. On the other manus the after math of the bubble splash was a hurting for the economic system. In general we will look at the effects on the rise and autumn of the Japan*s economic system. In 1985 the trade balance in Japan need to hold accommodation therefore the authorities declare that it needs some force to turn in order to forestall recession during this adjustment period. ( 8 ) # 8220 ; In 1989 the GNP has increased by 481,000,000,000,000 hankerings and this was chiefly due to the speculate market. # 8221 ; ( Peoples put their net income from land to stock market or frailty versa ) Many companies were chiefly focus on the speculate market. ( 9 ) # 8220 ; The Tokyo Stock exchange soared to about 40,000 points, the value of stock and land was far above the existent value and value of belongings was non rise due to its demand but was due to guess. Finally when the bubble splash, the vacancy rate went projectile high due to miss of demand. Many companies had to travel on a rigorous diet to last, and they made deep cuts in outgos for amusement, advertisement, communications and much else. # 8221 ; And the above statement is the general image of what go on during the bubble economic system. During the aureate period of land guess, many investors know that the land market in Japan was limited ( due to the possible and limited geographic country ) so they began to buy land over sea in Hawaii. ( 10 ) # 8220 ; The Non H2O forepart lodging monetary value in Hawaii during 1987 went up by 51 % and the H2O front lodging monetary value went up more than 100 % . # 8221 ; This resale land market in Hawaii was chiefly between the Japanese ; in 1987 the land monetary values was estimation has rise over 60.2 % and many renters have all of a sudden realize that the rent has enormously increase and can non afford it, so many people have no topographic point to remain ( particularly the senior ) . There are several grounds that Nipponese wants to put in Hawaii such as ; the waterfront position is similar to Japan so it will be a good topographic point for holiday and retirement, the distance between Japan is comparatively close ( 3 hours trip by plane ) and monolithic left over of equity and advantages in the exchange rate that has enormously increase the nominal value of their equity so it is an encouragement for investing. Therefore the moving ridge of land guess did non merely falsify the land market in Japan but besides affected foreign state. ( 8 ) Iwami Toru, # 8220 ; Japan in International Financial System # 8221 ; , MacMillian Press, New York 1995, pg. 135 ( 9 ) Iwami Toru, # 8220 ; Japan in International Financial System # 8221 ; , MacMillian Press, New York 1995, pg. 135 ( 10 ) Kenneth V. Smith, # 8220 ; Inman News # 8221 ; , June 1996 Version, Section B4 electronic mail reference: InmanNews @ aol.com Looking back at the Nipponese economic system ( 11 ) # 8220 ; in 1987, 77 out of the top 100 most to a great extent taxed people were involve in land guess ( either have resale their lands or have big land belongingss ) . This created a really unhealthy economic system because most of the economic system is depend on the land market and if any thing go on to the land market, it will falsify the economic system greatly. ( 12 ) # 8220 ; In 1989 the top 100 most to a great extent revenue enhancement people 95 of them were involve in land speculation. # 8221 ; Therefore the state of affairs was worst in the ulterior period this is chiefly because of the profitableness in the land market. Since many endeavors merely focal point on speculate market therefore the existent growing of GNP of the state was merely 4 to 6 % . The growing of the economic system was chiefly on the nominal sector. The addition in nominal GNP has created monolithic appreciate of hankering, which had enormously affect the export concerns and the industry industries. ( the nominal monetary value of the good has increase hence alien has less involvement on Japan goods but this chiefly consequence little and average endeavor ) While some export concern was non making excessively good, accordingly the workers are non acquiring an appropriate rise in income. ( 13 ) # 8220 ; In 1986 ( Nissan ) several of the high executive had experience an income cut by 5 to 10 % and many of them are really defeated because most of these people were in their 40*s and have to pay for mortgages and children*s tuition. In ulterior old ages Nissan had announced to cut 500 in order to equilibrate out their lost. # 8221 ; Therefore big industry as Nissan was non making so good during this period. This was worst in the instance of the little and average endeavor. Many little and medium size export companies had contract or even shut down during the mid 80*s and as the moving ridge of income cuts continued, every degree and category of the employees were involve. On the other manus the high exchange rate was truly an advantage for importer ( same value purchase more ) such as energy, crude oil and primary stuff. These companies were all of a sudden going so affluent and the income of their employees were much higher comparison to those working in the export endeavor. Therefore there was a big spread on the net income and income between the two distinguishable groups of company and it was really unhealthy for the white neckband. ( 11 ) # 8211 ; Iwami Toru, # 8220 ; Japan in International Financial System # 8221 ; , MacMillian Press, New York 1995, pg. 178 ( 12 ) Iwami Toru, # 8220 ; Japan in International Financial System # 8221 ; , MacMillian Press, New York 1995, pg. 178 ( 13 ) Cao Man Kit, # 8220 ; The Strategic of Japan Enterprise # 8221 ; , Ming Chang, H.K. 1992, pg. 135 This period of high exchange rate continues until the bubble explosion. The diminution of the bubble economic system occurs during the Gulf war period, the economic system in Japan was really rather and at the same clip the authorities had tighten their policy. ( Both revenue enhancement policy and limitation in loans ) As a consequence, the land guess market and land monetary values fall continuously. The existent estate market is wholly frozen. The National Land Agency measures that land monetary value of Tokyo and Osaka has dropped 30 to 50 per centum. ( Entire land wealth is near 2000 trillion hankerings which is truly a batch ) Many existent estate belongingss were unable to be resale and at the clip many companies were unable to pay such high involvement payment hence many of them went bankrupt. While the Bankss seldom make any loan, many companies cut back in their capital disbursement. In fact this had dampen the recovery of economic system. Most of these companies that went insolvents were either little or average size endeavor which deficiency of its separate bank centre. Large endeavors with separate bank centre besides suffer from non executing loans by the borrowers ( little and average size endeavor ) . Others big loaning establishment besides suffer mostly, since the major economic powers at the bubble period was on the land market hence any diminution in land values would strongly act upon the balance sheets of Japan*s imparting establishment. As reported in June 18 1996 The News Times International News that the ( 14 ) # 8220 ; parliament approves a $ 6. 3 billion bailout for belly-up lodging loaners. The ballot clears the manner for the constitution of an establishment to neutralize the assets of the lodging loaner which collapsed under bad loans made to existent estate speculators before Nipponese land monetary values plummeted in the early 1990s. The seven companies are believed to hold more than $ 65 billion in bad debts. # 8221 ; This $ .6.3 billion is merely a piece of the large image because ( 15 ) # 8220 ; the Finance Ministry said that Japan*s fiscal establishments held about $ 324 billion in bad loans as of March 31 1996. Analysts believe the sum could be considerable higher. The authorities in recent yearss has been working to carry Bankss and farm co-op to hold to take on a bigger portion of the bailout load to cut down the cost to taxpayer # 8221 ; . Harmonizing to a current fiscal station in Tokyo: ( 16 ) # 8220 ; Most of the fiscal Bankss declare yesterday that with the experience of shortage in last twelvemonth, this twelvemonth ( ended till September ) they had bend shortage into net net income. ( 14 ) # 8211 ; Kenneth V. Smith, # 8220 ; Inman News # 8221 ; , June 1996 Version, Section B4 electronic mail reference: InmanNews @ aol.com ( 15 ) # 8211 ; Kenneth V. Smith, # 8220 ; Inman News # 8221 ; , June 1996 Version, Section B4 electronic mail reference: InmanNews @ aol.com ( 16 ) # 8211 ; Herman Li, # 8220 ; Singing Tao News # 8221 ; , November 23 1996, Toronto, Section B 12Banks had consistently write off many of the un collectable histories. But their gross is still non really high because of low involvement rate and the incremental of bad debts. Therefore fiscal establishment will still likely experience rather a long period of recession. # 8221 ; Therefore residue effects of the land guess spill over still continues. Land developers besides suffer mostly. Before the land market clang was expose to the populace, there were about 1,200 golf class was either approve or under building. Many pre-member ships were sold but unluckily many of the building are neer finish because of Bankss were drawing back the loan. At extremum, the sum value of golf member ships market in Japan was nigh 200 billion for 1,700 golf classs. Therefore shuting down 1,200 golf class building was rather a doomed for the economic system. Another wake of the bubble explosion is the high vacancy rate in the office edifices in Tokyo. During the late 1980*s, the new building rate ( for the office edifices ) was dual comparison with the tradition. After the bubble explosion, the value of plus lessenings and demand for infinite besides decreases. Therefore many office edifices are unoccupied. As you can see, the after math of the bubble explosion did non merely impact the concern endeavor, authorities but besides the grass root people. ( 17 ) # 8220 ; In last twelvemonth the economic growing rate was merely about 1 % or less and the authorities had introduce economic revival policies such as lowest of all time involvement rates and increased public investing but judgment by the fact that consumer demand has cooled off and capital investing by the corporate sector is non doing headway as expected therefore the mentality for economic recovery in Japan remain brumous # 8221 ; . The bubble bursting has affected everyone in Japan. ( 18 ) # 8220 ; The state has clearly become a victim of the same wrenching procedure of debt deflation that had already been seeable for several old ages in so many other economic systems. Japan faces the world of straight-out deflation in footings of falling monetary values. With all that implies for companies inability to keep their net income borders. Japan was confronting by the fall of 1993 an unpleasant combination of extra production capacity, falling demand and a wild high hankering. By August 1993 wholesale monetary values were worsening at an annualized rate of 4.2 percent. # 8221 ; Once once more you can see that many Nipponeses are non really optimistic about the future economic system. ( 17 ) Wood, # 8220 ; The Bubble Economy # 8221 ; , Sidgwick A ; Jackson, London 1992 pg. 205 ( 18 ) Wood, # 8220 ; The Bubble Economy # 8221 ; , Sidgwick A ; Jackson, London 1992 pg. 206Therefore you can see that the land guess had create many negative impacts to the Japan economic system non merely during the bubble period but besides after the bubble explosion. 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Robert E. Lee Essays (4154 words) - Fitzhugh Family Of Virginia

Robert E. Lee Robert E. Lee They say you had to see him to believe that a man so fine could exist. He was handsome. He was clever. He was brave. He was gentle. He was generous and charming, noble and modest, admired and beloved. He had never failed at anything in his upright soldier's life. He was born a winner, this Robert E. Lee. Except for once. In the greatest contest of his life, in a war between the South and the North, Robert E. Lee lost (Redmond). Through his life, Robert E. Lee would prove to be always noble, always a gentleman, and always capable of overcoming the challenge lying before him. Robert Edward Lee was born on January 19, 1807 (Compton's). He was born into one of Virginia's most respected families. The Lee family had moved to America during the mid 1600's. Some genealogist can trace the Lee's roots back to William the Conqueror. Two members of the Lee family had signed the Declaration of Independence, Richard Lee and Francis Lightfoot. Charles Lee had served as attorney General under the Washington administration while Richard Bland Lee, had become one of Virginia's leading Federalists. Needless to say, the Lees were an American Political dynasty (Nash 242). Lee's father was General Henry Light-Horse Harry Lee. He had been a heroic cavalry leader in the American Revolution. He married his cousin Matilda. They had four children, but Matilda died in 1790. On her death bed she added insult to injury upon Henry Lee by leaving her estate to her children. She feared Henry would squander the family fortune. He was well known for poor investments and schemes that had depleted his own family's fortune (Connelly 5). Henry Lee solved his financial problems by marrying Robert's mother Anne Carter, daughter of one of Virginia's wealthiest men (Nash 242). Henry Lee eventually spent his family into debt. Their stately mansion, Stratford Hall, was turned over to Robert's half brother. Anne Lee moved with her children to a simple brick house in Alexandria. Light Horse Harry was seldom around. Finally, in 1813 he moved to the West Indies. His self-exile became permanent, and he was never seen again by his family (Thomas). Young Robert had other family problems. His mother became very ill. At the age of twelve he had to shoulder the load of not only being the family's provider, but also his mother's nurse. When time came for Robert to attend college, it was obvious his mother could not support him financially. She was already supporting his older brother at Harvard and three other children in school. In 1824 he accepted an appointment to the United States Military Academy. During his time at West Point Lee distinguished himself as a soldier and a student. Lee graduated with honors in 1829 (Nash 245). His graduation was dampened by a call to the bedside of his ailing mother. When he arrived home he found his fifty-four year old mother close to death. A death caused by struggles and illnesses of her difficult life. Robert was always close to his mother. He again attended to her needs until her death. On July 10, 1829, Anne Lee died with Robert, her closest son, at her side. Forty years later Robert would stand in the same room and say, It seems but yesterday that his beloved mother died (Connelly 6). While awaiting his first assignment, Lee frequently visited Arlington, the estate of George Washington Parke Custis. Custis was the grandson of Martha Washington and the adopted son of George Washington. After Martha's death Custis left Mount Vernon and used his inheritance to build Arlington in 1778. Arlington was set on a hill over looking the Potomac river and Washington D.C. (NPS Arlington House). Custis had only one daughter, Mary Anna Randolph. Mary had been pampered and petted throughout her life. Lee's Courtship with Mary soon turned serious, before long they were thinking of marriage. However, before Robert could propose he was assigned to Cockspur Island, Georgia. Robert returned to Arlington in 1830. He and Mary decided to get married. The two were married on June 30, 1831(Nash 248). Shortly there after the Lees went to Fort Monroe. Mary was never happy here. She soon went back to Arlington. Mary hated army life. She would, for the most part, stay at Arlington throughout the rest of Robert's time in the United States Army. The fact that he was separated from his family, and that he was slow to move up in rank, left Lee feeling quite depressed a great